Skiddy Street: A Nasty Stain in Denison's Story

 "Every life is a march from innocence, through temptation, to virtue or vice." -Lyman Abbott

I always stress in my classes that history has never been the story of just daffodils and daises. History is also an ugly, evil, and disgusting story. In this blog post, I am going to give you a brief history on a dark vignette in Denison's story. Like its regional counterparts, Dallas (Frog Town) and Fort Worth (Hell's Half Acre), Denison also had its own red light district (Skiddy Street). At the start of the 1870s, Judge Christopher Columbus Binkley of the 12th Judicial District in Texas approached the Missouri-Kansas-Texas Railway Company and suggested they create a new depot north of Sherman. The railway board were impressed at the plans and opened the Katy Depot in a small community named Denison. Binkley used his genial connections with Governor Edmund J. Davis to accelerate the town's incorporation process, and Denison was officially created a city on February 8, 1873. Owing to the railway, Denison's population skyrocketed between 2,000-3,000 inhabitants in a span of 4 months. The North Texas region was sprawling with a mixture of Anglos from the South, European immigrants, and Native Americans at the start of the Gilded Age.

A saloon on Skiddy Street at the end of the Reconstruction Era. In a January 1873 edition of the Scribner's Magazine, Edward King noted that "every third building in the place [Denison] was a drinking saloon with gambling apprentices... men drunk and sober danced to rude music... and did not lack female partners."

The Denison Town Company, which had been established on September 20, 1872 by Colonel Robert Smith Stevens, seized the chance to profit from the community's sudden growth and sold over $90,000 worth of building lots in the first four months of 1873. The Denison News reported the stiff competition new residents faced when they moved to Denison and hoped to immediately buy a plot: "A great many families in Denison are still residing in tents. There are no dwellings to rent, as they are occupied as fast as the mechanics can finish them." Several greedy businessmen acquired plots on the unpaved road next to the Main Street (later named Skiddy Street after Commodore Francis Skiddy, a Denison railroad official), and built 20 saloons and 10 brothels in the first six months. These dirty facilities were very popular as they appeased to the weary, sex-hungry commuters who traveled from Dallas to Oklahoma and stopped at the Katy Depot en route. In its existence, Skiddy Street had 52 saloons; the alcohol-serving establishments were the most lucrative shops in the city. Historian V.V. Masterson's description of Denison's sin center is precise: "Here, crowding each other into the befouled former watercourse, were the tented gambling halls, the hurdy-gurdy joints, lowest-class saloons, cockfighting pits, variety houses, and the deadly 'dovecotes' that served as houses of prostitution for all races, colors, and creeds."

A map of Denison in 1873. Main Street is located in the center and is highly populated with offices and residences. Skiddy Street, Denison's red light district, is one street over on the left.

Since alcohol intake was often abused in the frequented saloons, violence and crime were common on Skiddy Street. Texas scholar Jack Maguire once wrote that Denison was the perfect squatting grounds for hardened men: "Denison, four miles as the crow flies from the sluggish river that separated Texas from the Indian Territory, became a kind of unofficial headquarters for a variety of criminals. It was a local brag that at least half of the almost 4,000 residents were 'ruffians' and other scourings of society." Travelers who a large appetite for beer and whisky would often engage in fist-fights with colleagues and local law enforcement. The first recorded death on Skiddy Street was policeman John Shannon on February 5, 1874; Shannon was hit by a fat slug when he attempted to arrest a boisterous group outside the El Dorado Saloon. Starting in April 1875, the Denison Daily Cresset reported weekly criminal notes on prostitutes. Once, "two notorious negro prostitutes" named Amelia and Emma Brown were charged with "stripping a colored girl, tying her to a bedpost and whipping her with a broom." The next week, Sallie Miller, a white sex worker hailing from San Antonio, plunged a knife in Ed Killian's cheek and hair-pulled Louise Duvall over a disagreement. The Dallas Morning News voted that if they "could pick the place in Texas where crime and vice flourished with least restraint," it would be Denison.

Another saloon on Skiddy Street. Note how the road is soiled and unpaved.

The main attraction on Skiddy Street, aka Rat Alley, were the brothels. Madame Millie Hipps and her soiled 'doves', who came from Mollie Andrews' sickening incubator in Sedalia, Missouri, set up camp on Skiddy Street and attracted the high-paying customers from Sherman. The undesired women, who were between the ages of 15 and 28, used pseudonyms to hide their real identities; these included Effie Cregier, Minnie Lee, Bellie Ward, Irene Donaldson, Amanda Hudson, "Irish Mag", and Lizzie Woods. "Rowdy" Kate Lowe, the flirtatious proprietor of the Sazerac Saloon, was known to serve cold drinks and sexual favors to customers. Prostitutes would dance with potential sober and drunk customers before enticing the clientele to an array of services. The young women would "work" in crude rooms above the saloons, singular cribs, or as a final resort, in the streets. On Sundays, "the frail daughters of Skid Row donned their finest plumage and paraded through town," where they would scream and laugh at passerbys from borrowed automobiles in hopes to attract more customers. At the end of the day, the prostitutes would have to give up most of their wages by paying rent to the Madame. Prostitutes in Denison were also subject to harsh treatment from their customers, resulting in bruising. Money was made in the bedroom, however, the profession also had a dark side. Several prostitutes came face-to-face with their grim reality and committed suicide; for example, a popular sex worker at the Crystal Palace brothel named "Maud" unexpectedly took morphine after a day's work and died-- she was 18 years-old.

Denison's Main Street at the turn of the twentieth century. Only a handful of saloons and brothels existed on Main Street (because of their specific licenses and zoning restrictions). The bulk of the city's vice facilities were located one street over on Skiddy Row.

Although Denison's red light district was enjoyed by many travelers, a growing number of community folk opposed the wretched establishments. The City Council passed Section 55 in the late 1870s, which gave them the power to license and regulate Skiddy Street businesses; the Council charged each entity $5 per week to operate, as well as an additional $1 fee per "inmate" they employed. Section 80 was also passed, which gave the City Council power to regularly inspect Skiddy Street facilities; some report that the prostitutes were probably in better health than the regular Denison residents because of their frequent doctors' visits. Despite these preventative measures, the vice continued to soar because alcohol and prostitution were economically important to the city's coffers. Lee Hall, a former city marshal in Sherman, became Denison's police chief in the mid-1870s and started to punish the bad men who "were 'thick as fiddlers in hell'." He was considered fearless; once, he was shot five times while on duty yet shrugged off the bullets and continued his street rounds. In two years, Officer Hall had made 1,060 arrests. Efforts to remove Skiddy Street's brothels were further encouraged when the road was officially renamed to Chestnut Street in the 1880s. Local industries slowly replaced the unsanitary facilities at the turn of the twentieth century, and the passage of the 18th Amendment in 1919, which prohibited the sale of alcohol, damaged the saloons that remained on the former Skiddy Street. Following a well-reported railroad strike in Denison in 1922, where 500 National Guard soldiers were called in to clear the mess and the Katy Depot was relocated to Waco, the saucy activities on old Skiddy Street virtually ceased.

Denison was established at the end of the Reconstruction Era as a promising commercial hub, however, the shady activities which greedy, sex-hungry, adventure-craving, alcohol-yearning men enjoyed prospered and altered the town's identity. Today, Denison is a friendly, genuine community which is beautiful and vibrant. We are fortunate that the colorful bandits, violence, and vice have disappeared and are only a ugly stamp on the city's past. 

Sources:

Bridges, Jennifer, "The Katy's Ladies: Prostitution in Early Denison, Texas, 1872-1880," East Texas Historical Journal 53, no. 1 (2015). 

Cranfill, Leslie, "The Early History of Denison, Texas," M.A. Thesis, Hardin-Simmons University, 1951.

Maguire, Jack, Katy's Baby: The Story of Denison, Texas (Austin: Nortex Press, 1991).

Masterson, V.V., The Katy Railroad and the Last Frontier (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1952).

Mr. Sam's House in Bonham

A few months ago I visited Sam Rayburn's house in Bonham. I did not have time to tour the facility because of other engagements, however, I did take some photographs of the house's exterior and soaked myself in the history of Texas's legendary congressman. That being said, I do plan on touring the interior in the next year. "Mr. Sam" is a well-researched character in Texas history, and there is so much to write about him. I will keep this historical excerpt brief. Sam Rayburn was born on January 6, 1882 to Martha Clementine and William Marion Rayburn, a former Confederate cavalryman. He was one of 11 siblings. Rayburn attended East Texas Normal College between 1900 and 1903, where he studied under the progressive facilitator William Leonidas Mayo and excelled in history, ethics, and theatre (he is the school's most distinguished alumnus). An ambitious young man, Rayburn first entered the political scene in 1906 when he won a seat in the Texas House of Representatives. He was respected and admired by his political colleagues and foes, and later clinched the Texas speaker role at age 29.

Portrait of Sam Rayburn, the newly-elected Speaker of the House, 1941. Painted by Douglas Chandor.

Rayburn ran for the Texas District 4 seat in the U.S. House of Representatives in 1912 and won as a dark horse. He remained in his seat for the next 48 years, loyal to his constituents. Owing to his popularity, he never faced a Republican opponent. Rayburn was a political wizard and a strategic genius, driving key pieces of legislation through the House and into law (he played a large role in passing FDR's New Deal programs). Despite being a lifetime Democrat and party loyalist, Rayburn was not afraid to jump the aisle and collaborate with his political foes, presidents and congressmen. He collaborated with eight presidents, between Woodrow Wilson and John F. Kennedy. His passion for Congressional values was unwavering. Rayburn also served as minority leader, majority leader, and Speaker of the House for an unprecedented 17 years (a record that stands today!). In the later part of his political career, Rayburn is best remembered for being a mentor and father-figure to Senator Lyndon B. Johnson (who would be JFK's successor). Prior to his death, Rayburn helped usher in a new, fairer era of national politics by passing the Civil Rights Acts of 1957 and 1960. The legendary Texas-grown politician died of pancreatic cancer on November 16, 1961. He was 79 years old. 

Standing in front of Mr. Sam's house in Bonham, TX. This is a cool piece of history!

"Mr. Sam" always had a home in Texas, despite his heavy involvement in D.C. He purchased 121 acres of land west of Bonham for $6,000 in 1914, two years after his successful congressional election. In 1916, construction on a two-story clapboard home began; Rayburn's parents lived in the residence for a few years before their deaths. Several rooms and front porches were later added by architect W.B. Yarbrough. Rayburn paid an electric company to erect poles and run electric lines to his home in 1935; the Rayburn House was one of the first residences in poor Northeast Texas to have both electricity and running water (a well and windmill to pull water out of the well were constructed in 1917). Since he enjoyed the outdoors, Rayburn was often found wearing blue jeans and cowboy hats in the yard, either gardening (and producing cotton, corn, and sorghum crops) and tending to his cattle. His favorite room was the sitting room, which he often used as a study during his trips home. One of Rayburn's biggest regrets was that he did not have a son (his marriage with Metze Jones was short-lived and did not produce children); prolific author Robert Caro noted that the speaker would have loved to go fishing with his boy. The Sam Rayburn Foundation deeded the home to the state in 1972, and the Texas Historical Commission established the museum in 1975. "Mr. Sam's" house is a handsome residence, and I can not wait to step back in time and tour the facility's interior soon!

"If a man has good sense, he has about all the sense there is." - Sam Rayburn

My beautiful wife and dog sit in front of the Sam Rayburn statue on Texas A&M-Commerce's campus. The student center is named after Mr. Sam, the most illustrated alumnus of the institution. Rayburn played an instrumental part in creating the Air Force ROTC at East Texas State Teachers College following WWII (this program was discontinued in the early 1990s).

The Sam Rayburn Library is also located in Bonham, and houses many of Mr. Sam's political documents and artifacts. This facility was closed when I visited because of the Covid-19 Pandemic.

Behind me is one of the tractors Rayburn used to till the soil.

Rayburn thoroughly enjoyed spending time in his Texas district. He is photographed in his garden.

The servants were housed on site. This facility was once the residence of Mr. Sam's gardeners.

The chicken coup and tool shed in the back yard. There were several noisy chickens when I visited the property!

The rear of Rayburn's house. Members of the Rayburn family fondly remember Mr. Sam's cook Bobbie Phillips. Mrs. Phillips rang the bell in the back yard every day at 11:30am to call the family and farmers to lunch.

The National Museum of the Pacific War

My wife and I visited the National Museum of the Pacific War in Fredericksburg when we admired the beautiful Texas Hill Country in November 2020. The museum was stocked with fine exhibits, vintage artifacts, and handsome models of World War II weapons, planes, and naval carriers. Despite not being an avid history nerd like me, my wife also thoroughly enjoyed walking around this fantastic museum. The museum tells the story of Admiral Chester W. Nimitz and the Pacific Front. Over 830,000 Texans (which included 12,000 women) partook in the war effort, and more than 23,000 Texans died for their country. Many of these servicemen and servicewomen were on the front lines in the Pacific Ocean, fighting the brutal Japanese armies and liberating islands during a military campaign called "Island Hopping." Since the Japanese refused to surrender after their gruesome defeat at the Iwo Jima islands in February/March 1945, the United States swiftly ended the war by dropping two atomic bombs on the Cities of Nagasaki and Hiroshima in August, killing thousands of civilians. The European Front during WWII is regularly discussed in classrooms and textbooks, yet it is also important to remember that the United States was fighting a two-front conflict during the early 1940s. I did not know much about the Pacific War before visiting this museum, however, I am now interested to learn more about America's other frontal assault against the enemy and a small slither of Japan's illustrated history.

Headshot of Chester W. Nimitz, commander in chief of all U.S. Naval Forces on the Pacific Front. Nimitz was born in Fredericksburg and obtained a college degree at the U.S. Naval Academy. He created the first submarine base at Pearl Harbor and later led his soldiers to a string of island victories during the Pacific War. Nimitz was beloved by many peers, and was often photographed smiling and laughing with the soldiers. He was promoted to a five-star general rank after the war and signed the Japanese peace treaty aboard the USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay on September 2, 1945. I admire Nimitz's dedication to country and family; he helped his wife raise 4 young children during his military ascent.

Pictured is the front of the museum. After the Japanese surrender, Admiral Chester Nimitz took to the podium to address his tired, yet elated soldiers: "Today all freedom-loving peoples of the world rejoice in the victory and feel pride in the accomplishments of our combined forces...Now we turn to the great tasks of reconstruction and restoration. I am confident that we will be able to apply the same skill, resourcefulness and keen thinking to these problems as were applied to the problems of winning the victory." 

The Nagasaki bomb razed most of the highly-populated city. Prior to this tragic event, Japan's leaders were strongly opposed to unconditional surrender. Their consistent goal was a negotiated peace that would preserve the Imperial Throne and military establishment. In spring 1945, the emperor proposed launching a new offensive in China and initiating a peace treaty with the Soviet Union. However, Stalin wanted war, and these ambitious plans failed. The Japanese were hopeless and in despair. Surrender was their best option after August 9, 1945.

A replica of "Fat Man," the atomic bomb that was dropped on Nagasaki on August 9, 1945. Between 39,000 and 80,000 people were killed that day. Since this was the second atomic bomb that was dropped on Japan, the Imperial Government surrendered on August 15, effectively ending WWII.

A Marine Corps outfit worn by an American soldier during the Battle of Iwo Jima in February/March 1945. The five-week battle saw some of the fiercest and bloodiest fighting during WWII; over 24,000 American and Japanese soldiers were killed, and many more wounded or declared missing. Since the Americans took the island, the Islands of Japan became more venerable to direct attacks. Joe Rosenthal's famous photograph of the six Marines raising the American flag was taken at Iwo Jima.

A 1944 photograph of an American landing craft. Soldiers also traveled via vessels/sea crafts during their "Island Hopping" campaign. Since the waters were choppy, it was not unusual for soldiers to often feel seasick.

A replica of a WWII jeep. This vehicle was constructed by women. Between 1942 and 1944, the number of women working in American military factories increased 37 percent. One might have seen the "Rosie the Riveter" image on their streets; this was created for the government's mobilization effort.

Since the Pacific Ocean covers so much ground, American soldiers had to often travel via aircraft. The museum houses a massive bomber plane, which not only was used to transport ground forces, but was also utilized in raids on Japanese cities and industrial areas.

Artifacts and military gear of a WWII Japanese soldier. Not all Japanese soldiers treated American prisoners harshly; some shared food and cigarettes, and failed to carry out execution orders.

A replica of a powerful automatic machine gun used by American soldiers on the Pacific Front.

After two years of neutrality, the United States entered the war on the Allies side when Japanese planes attacked American naval vessels at Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941. The Japanese knew that they had to attack the United States if they were to grow their Pacific Empire; "Japan must be willing to fight America to achieve our national objectives," Lieutenant Colonel Ishiwara Kanji once said. After four hours, the Japanese fighters had shattered the American Pacific fleet; four battleships sunk, two seriously damaged, and two others sustained serious damage. 188 U.S. aircraft were destroyed, and over 2,400 seamen and officers were killed. Following President FDR's famous "a date which will live in infamy" speech, Congress promptly declared war on Japan.

A model of the USS Arizona. Commissioned on October 17, 1916, the USS Arizona was one of the escort ships in President Woodrow Wilson's entourage to Europe following World War I before it was transferred to Pearl Harbor. On December 7, 1941, Japanese torpedo bombers struck the USS Arizona, causing the large vessel to sink, along with 1,177 officers and seamen. A memorial now sits on top of the ship's damaged hull.

Doris "Dorie" Miller, hero of Pearl Harbor. Miller was born on a farm outside of Waco, and enlisted in the U.S. Navy in September 1939 (when Nazi Germany invaded Poland). He was assigned to the USS West Virginia at Pearl Harbor prior to the 1941 attack. At 6 foot, 3 inches, and 225 pounds, "Dorie" was known to be a champion boxer on the ship's decks. After his captain was mortally wounded during the Japanese attack, Miller, who had no gunnery training, began firing a machine gun and blasted a few enemy places from the sky. Owing to his heroic efforts, Miller was the first African-American to be awarded the U.S. Navy Cross. He was later killed in a submarine attack in November 1943.

The Stock Market Crash of 1929 brought the world to its knees. Japan suffered during the early years of the Great Depression and its economy crippled. In an effort to restore its national pride as well as collect natural resources, Japan launched an attack on Manchuria, China in September 1931. Owing to the brilliance of Japanese generals, like the one depicted above, the campaign was successful. With no opposition, Japan continued to grow its Pacific empire before the start of WWII. Japan also left the frail League of Nations, further jeopardizing world peace.

Japan has had a long, complicated history of emperors, royal dynasties, and power-hungry officials. Japan and Russia fought over Korea during the 1904-1905 Russo-Japanese War. President Teddy Roosevelt assisted in the treaty negotiations. The Japanese victory surprised the western empires and resulted in Japan's emergence as a superior naval superpower.

The Beautiful Enchanted Rock

If you are ever in the Texas Hill Country I would highly recommending hiking up Enchanted Rock, a large mound in the middle of a beautiful West Texas region. One might wonder why I and so many Texans are mesmerized by a huge rock- what is special about Enchanted Rock? Not only is the landmark very handsome, Enchanted Rock has a fascinating history and cultural vibe. It is situated on Big Sandy Creek, estimated 18 miles north of Fredericksburg and straddling the border of Gillespie and Llano Counties. This was one of the sites of my November 2020 honeymoon; my wife and I enjoyed hiking to the rock's summit and gaping at Texas's natural areas.

Ready to hike Enchanted Rock. The trek was exhausting, but well worth the trip!

Humans have camped in the Texas Hill Country for over 12,000 years. Indigenous peoples used to ground their food on the granite rocks that are currently found around Enchanted Rock (they left depressions in the granite called bedrock mortars). Following the Spanish conquest of Mexico, Texas, and the American Southwest in the eighteenth century, a mission and presidio was established on the San Saba River. The Spanish also tried to create a silver mine on Honey Creek, yet were unsuccessful. Americans and Germans settled in the Hill Country area starting in the mid-nineteenth century in hopes of acquiring a sizable plot of land and following the American Dream. Despite the Anglo settlements quickly sprouting in the area, the Natives continued to inhabit Enchanted Rock and its surrounding lands, provoking tension between the two distinct groups. Indians attacked a small surveying group at Enchanted Rock in 1841. Texas Rangers Captain John Coffee Hays was cut off from his troupe and forced to retreat in a depression at the summit. There, he fought off his attackers for three hours before his companions came to his aid. A historical plaque on the rock commemorates this event.

A panorama of the Texas Hill Country, taken at the Enchanted Rock summit.

Enchanted Rock's history is covered in myths and legends, according to the old-town folks who live in the Texas Hill Country. The Tonkawa Indians believed that ghost fires flickered on top of the rock; the curious creaking and groaning coming from the mound frightened them. Geologists and scientists later concluded that the rock creaks as the temperature changes and glitters on clear nights after rainfall. Once, an Indian maiden saw her entire tribe get slaughtered by white men; horrified at the brutality, she threw herself off the top of the rock, and her spirit continues to haunt the mound. Also, a Spanish conquistador escaped the clutches of the Indigenous peoples and lived the rest of his life in hiding. The Indians believed the escapee wove enchantments on the area, thus giving rise to a noted legend of a "pale man swallowed by a rock and reborn as one of their own."

Texas is vast... looking out west from the summit.

The Enchanted Rock Natural Area was owned by local businessman Charles Moss in the mid-twentieth century before the Nature Conservancy of Texas purchased the property in 1978. The 1,640.5-acre property was later sold to the State of Texas. Enchanted Rock became a tourist hub in October 1978, and visitors have continued to trek the park each year (Enchanted Rock attracts more than 250,000 guests each year making the area one of the most visited parks in the state park system). Home of several hundred unique species and habitats as well as over 400 protected archeological sites, Enchanted Rock is a National Natural Landmark, and is on the National Register of Historic Places as an Archeological District. The trails are beautiful, the nature is refreshing and the scenery is picturesque. Climber Matt Twyman's account sums up Enchanted Rock's enchantress: "My heart feels lighter, my mind feels calmer and my sense feel tuned whenever I see that giant pink rock on the horizon. No matter how I choose to spend my time among the enchanted rocks of the park, I always leave feeling better than when I arrived."

I enjoyed driving down the quiet, calm roads in the Texas Hill Country. Where will I travel next?

The entrance to Enchanted Rock.

Enchanted Rock's summit is marked by a simple plaque.

Texas has a diverse, vibrant landscape.

A small canyon on the east side of Enchanted Rock; it was fun walking through the thickets. 

There are a couple of bodies of water around Enchanted Rock. This one is located to the south.

Notice the different shades of rock on the west side of Enchanted Rock.

Enchanted Rock is breathtaking. I often compare it to the Garden of the Gods Park in Colorado Springs.

Greenville's Controversial Sign

At the entrance/exit of Downtown Greenville, a large, illuminating sign that read "Greenville Welcome: The Blackest Land, The Whitest People" once hung at a busy intersection for more than 47 years. Despite it being a prominent city symbol for many decades, the sign was divisive and a testament to the South's segregated influence. The sign's original phrasing was first used on a simple business card that belonged to W.N. Harrison, a local land broker. Harrison, a prominent face in Northeast Texas, traveled to Kansas City, MO, in February 1916 to lobby for Greenville to be a community through which the Jefferson Memorial Highway (now the U.S. 69) would pass en route to New Orleans. Persistent in achieving his goals, Harrison paid the hotel's bellboy to give his business card to President Woodrow Wilson, who was also staying at the hotel. President Wilson was intrigued at the "Greenville Welcome" phrase on the business card and asked to meet with Harrison. Thus, Harrison persuaded the federal government to place Greenville on the map.

A 1930s postcard image of Greenville's downtown welcome sign, which hung at Lee and Wright Streets' intersection. The sign was seen as a landmark with little meaning for over four decades.

In recognition of Harrison's efforts in publicizing the city, Greenville's Chamber of Commerce contacted the Flexlume Company of Buffalo, NY, in April 1921 and asked them to create a welcome sign for the city that used Harrison's phrase. Greenville's "Blackest Land, Whitest People" sign, which measured 24 feet long by 4 feet high and was adorned with electric lights, was installed next to the Katy Railway Depot on July 7, 1921. The two-sided sign was estimated to have cost between $300 and $500 to erect. The opening ceremony for the sign took place that evening in front of a huge crowd of proud citizens. Since W.N. Harrison had died shortly after his return trip from Kansas City, his oldest son, Hubert Harrison, was the keynote speaker and talked about Greenville's expansive growth. Greenville's citizens loudly cheered at the tribute to local prosperity. No one questioned the sign's wording since Greenville was very much a product of the segregated South; according to a 1920s dictionary, the term "white" meant people who were "honorable, trustworthy, or square," traits that blacks "did not have." Greenville's black population was restricted to "separate but equal" facilities, which included badly-managed neighborhoods, schools, churches, public areas, and occupations. Ironically, the sign in the downtown reinforced an image of perfect community with friendly and inclusive people (despite 1/5 of Greenville's population living under different laws).

President Woodrow Wilson, 1915. Despite running on a progressive campaign and granting women the right to vote in 1920, Wilson did not believe in racial equality and refused to appoint blacks to government positions.

According to the Greenville Evening Banner, a Ku Klux Klan rally was held under the welcome sign on December 16, 1921. 600 Klan members and over 30,000 spectators took part in the first Klan rally ever recorded in Northeast Texas. Besides this one instance, the sign had little meaning and was labeled by many (white and black citizens) as simply a landmark. Dewey Fitzpatrick, a black businessman, said the sign's wording did not offend him; the phrase meant "good, friendly people of all races who were trustworthy and helpful to their neighbors." Greenville's Chamber of Commerce hosted several picnics and commerce conventions next to the sign in the late 1920s, all of which were very popular among the locals and visiting businessmen. The city's clever slogan caught the attention of many mayors, who persuaded their city councils to create their own slogans. The sign garnered more attention during the Second World War when soldiers and nursing cadets on trains passed the welcome sign when entering or exiting Greenville. The "Blackest Land, Whitest People" slogan was found on planes. Also, the 1941 graduating class at Greenville High School included the slogan on their class rings. When President Harry S. Truman stopped in Greenville during his 1948 Whistle-Stop Campaign Tour, he spoke under the famous welcome sign, remarking how beautiful the City of Greenville was.

Harry S. Truman stopped in Greenville during his Whistle-Stop Campaign Tour on September 27, 1948. Underneath the downtown welcome sign, Truman promised to continue to protect farmers' economic interests if he were to be re-elected. He proclaimed that Greenville was "One of the richest farming communities in the whole United States," and urged the city to vote Democratic on the ticket, "From president to constable." (via Truman Library) House Representative Sam Rayburn was at the speech.

Following World War II, Greenville's population hovered around 15,000, and the city's black residents constituted around 20% of that total (about 3,000). The perception of the welcome sign began to change and was accelerated by the 1954 Brown v. Board of Education decision (which ended the "separate but equal" ruling). A large group of Greenville citizens saw the sign as a symbol of race and not of local pride. In spite of the grumblings, the sign continued to quietly hang next to the Katy Railway Depot. Greenville continued to be a hub of economic growth in the early 1960s. As the Civil Rights Movement was picking up momentum, Greenville's population toppled 19,000; this was a dramatic jump of 27% in one decade. Since many African Americans had sought opportunity in rural Northeast Texas and moved away from the Dallas-Fort Worth metroplex, the city's black population had slightly increased and now totaled 3,698.

Greenville's "Blackest Land, Whitest People" sign, c. 1951. Once, local resident Jack Finney wanted to put the sign's slogan on his nametag at a Jeopardy gameshow in New York City, however, was not permitted to play because the game officials considered the slogan a slur rather than a clever slogan for a progressive community.

The welcome sign's demise was slowly drawing nearer. John Connally, a former Secretary of the Navy in the John F. Kennedy administration, won the 1962 Texas governor's race, campaigning on a platform to progressively improve race relations, economic welfare, and state education. Connally was admired by many in Northeast Texas and was hailed as "the Personification of Texas." The governor visited the city on March 25, 1965, and was greeted by a huge crowd of white supporters at the National Guard Armory on Lee Street prior to having dinner with the Chamber of Commerce. Ralph Hall, a long-time state senator, introduced the governor at the dinner. Connally's speech that evening was not recorded, however, some, including black businesswoman Myrna Gilstrap, recalled the governor suggesting that "the sign's wording had taken on a new and undesired meaning that was not complimentary." Did he say the welcome sign should be taken down? This question remains a mystery, however, Connally's speech paved a new path for Greenville's Chamber of Commerce. On April 13, three weeks later, the Board decided to take down the sign (reasons are unknown). The "Blackest Land, Whitest People" slogan, which for many decades had described a proud community of decent character, was now identified with racist undertones.

Governor John Connally's 1965 speech to Greenville's Chamber of Commerce might have been instrumental in the decision to remove the controversial welcome sign.

There were some efforts to restore the welcome sign, including a movement by Sybil Maddaux, the first woman mayor, in 1968, yet the sign stayed in storage. It appeared that Greenville wanted to bury its unjust, controversial past and move towards a brighter future. The people of Greenville were very proud of their city in the 1920s and created the sign as a welcoming beacon to tourists and visitors. They had not intended to exclude the black community because that would have been counterproductive to the city's growing prosperity. However, as time wore on and society norms changed, the sign's wording was open to other interpretations, and it was decided to publicly remove that piece of history and place it in the history books in the 1960s so Greenville could focus on fostering a more inclusive community. Greenville's welcome sign is another artifact that has been labeled as a symbol of the past, but is no longer appropriate to publicly display in today's progressively-charged culture.

Exploring New Orleans, LA

Since I recently traveled to New Orleans for a social sciences conference, I would like to share some of my photographs and the history of Louisiana's renowned port city. New Orleans was established by the French Mississippi Company in May 1718. The colony, named after Philippe II, Duke of Orleans, faced numerous struggles with the Natives in Southern Louisiana, yet emerged as a powerful shipping city at the start of the nineteenth century, famous for its smuggling. New Orleans and the Louisiana Territory was transferred to the Spanish after the American Revolution, then back to the French's hands, before being acquired by the United States in 1803. An influx of American east-coast civilians, Europeans, and Haitian refugees settled in the city after the Louisiana Purchase. By the early 1810s, a majority of the city's population was black; between 1808 and 1865, more than 2 million African slaves were forcibly displayed at auctions in New Orleans. The plot of land that the city's Omni Hotel currently sits on used to be the home of New Orleans's largest slave pen, which operated six days a week. Slave traders who resided in New Orleans included Hope Hull Slatter, John Hagan, and Joseph Bruin. Solomon Northup, the freeman who was cruelly coerced into slavery for 12 years, was sold at Theophilus Freeman's slave pen in New Orleans. Owing to slavery and cotton, New Orleans's wealth steadily grew.

Following the Civil War and elimination of slavery, New Orleans, like most of the American South, played host to several violent riots and racial lynchings. At the turn of the twentieth century, the city's population and once-great national importance diminished since the growth of railroads and highways took over the once-used river travel, and thousands of colored folks migrated to California and the West. By the 1950s, New Orleans was no longer the leading urban area in the South, with Houston, Dallas, and Atlanta eclipsing its trading records. Towards the end of the twentieth century, the city built its industry on tourist attractions, most notably Bourbon Street (with its world-famous bars, strip clubs, and nightlife entertainment). Unfortunately, most of New Orleans was destroyed by Hurricane Katrina in August 2005. Labeled as "the worst engineering disaster in the world since Chernobyl," the flooding of this brilliant city devastated Louisiana's landscape. The hurricane's storm surge overpowered the city levees, permitting tons of water to swarm the streets. People were killed, electricity was out, and homes were destroyed. Thousands evacuated to surrounding areas and seeked help from temporary Red Cross shelters, including in Dallas (my mum volunteered at a shelter during the Katrina crisis). Federal, state, and local institutions helped the city civilians rebuild New Orleans after Hurricane Katrina. Slowly, the infrastructure was reconstructed and New Orleans again became the vibrant city we all know and love. I am incredibly grateful to have participated in the SSSA conference and visit such a colorful and magnificent city like New Orleans.

One of the highlights of the trip was a lunch at Ruby Slipper Café, where I had eggs benedict with Applewood smoked bacon for the first time. It was delicious!

Are my photographs making you hungry yet? My wife and I ate at Acme Oyster House and feasted on po'boy sandwiches (mine was stuffed with roast beef while my wife had fried shrimp in hers). Po'boys are traditionally eaten at lunch and are made with French baguettes.   

An inside look at Café Beignet on Royal Street. Beignets are deep-fried pastries covered with powered sugar, and are delicious when hot. These fresh doughnuts originated in France and were brought over to New Orleans by colonists in the eighteenth century. My wife and I also had beignets at Café Du Monde.

Situated in front of Jackson Square, St. Louis Cathedral is a monstrous, imposing building. The current church was built in 1789 and is currently the oldest cathedral in continuous use in the United States. The church is named in honor of King Louis IX of France (who was a progressive monarch). Don't fret if you sin on Bourbon Street since you can repent in the church a couple of blocks away.

Jackson Square, which is a block away from Bourbon Street, is a beautiful city park. A handsome statue of President Andrew Jackson (who also commanded American forces at the 1815 Battle of New Orleans) sits in the center of the square. Jackson Square is the site of the Louisiana Purchase signing in 1803. It was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1960.

Bourbon Street is New Orleans' famous tourist destination where visitors can either grab an alcoholic beverage, visit one of the several strip clubs, or dance all night. Loud jazz music and flashing lights are common. The energy along Bourbon Street (which covers 13 blocks) was electrifying. 

The mask has become an icon of New Orleans. French aristocrats used to wear masks and fancy costumes at grand parties and dances. That piece of culture was transferred to North America when the Europeans settled in South Louisiana in the seventeenth century. Today, masks are worn at Mardi Gras.

Canal Street is one of the largest and widest avenues in the city. It was the dividing line between the older colonial part of New Orleans and the modern business center. Originally supposed to be a canal that would transport people and commerce, Canal Street was built as a road when the city needed more avenues. Streetcars, like the two seen in this photograph, are common modes of travel among tourists.

My wife and I stayed at Hotel Monteleone during our visit. Nestled in the French Quarter on Royal Street, the 4-star hotel is one of the city's landmarks and oldest hotels (built in 1886). Many renowned writers and poets have stayed at Hotel Monteleone, including F. Scott Fitzgerald, Stephen Ambrose, Ernest Hemingway, and Erie Stanley Gardner.